This data set reports measurements of the canopy and structure of secondary forests regenerating from abandoned pastures. These secondary forests are located in the state of Amazonas, Brazil, along the road BR-174 north of the city of Manaus within three fazendas (cattle ranches) now in various stages of grazing, pasture abandonment, or pasture reclamation: Fazenda Rodao (km 46), Embrapa-District of SUFRAMA (DAS) pasture research site (km 53), and Fazenda Dimona (km 72). Ten secondary forest study sites were selected within the three fazendas where post-pasture forest recovery ranged from 0 to 14 years since abandonment.
From 2000-2001 estimates of leaf area index (LAI) and canopy cover were derived from hemispherical canopy digital photographs, and estimates of aboveground biomass and basal area were derived utilizing allometric equations from diameter at breast height (DBH) measurements. Estimates were classified by growth-form and diameter class. See Feldpausch et al. (2005) for more information. There are four comma-delimited data files with this data set and one companion file with information regarding the allometric equations relating diameter at breast height (for dbh > 5 cm) to dry weight for biomass calculations.
Cite this data set as follows:
Feldpausch, T.R., E.C.M. Fernandes, M.A. Rondon, S.J. Riha, and E. Wandelli. 2012. LBA-ECO ND-04 Secondary Forest Recovery, Structure, and LAI, Central Amazonia, Brazil. Data set. Available on-line [http://daac.ornl.gov] from Oak Ridge National Laboratory Distributed Active Archive Center, Oak Ridge, Tennessee, U.S.A. http://dx.doi.org/10.3334/ORNLDAAC/1068
The LBA Data and Publication Policy [http://daac.ornl.gov/LBA/lba_data_policy.html] is in effect for a period of five (5) years from the date of archiving and should be followed by data users who have obtained LBA data sets from the ORNL DAAC. Users who download LBA data in the five years after data have been archived must contact the investigators who collected the data, per provisions 6 and 7 in the Policy.
This data set was archived in February of 2012. Users who download the data between February 2012 and January 2017 must comply with the LBA Data and Publication Policy.
Data users should use the Investigator contact information in this document to communicate with the data provider. Alternatively, the LBA website [http://lbaeco-archive.ornl.gov/] in Brazil will have current contact information.
Data users should use the Data Set Citation and other applicable references provided in this document to acknowledge use of the data.
Project: LBA (Large-Scale Biosphere-Atmosphere Experiment in the Amazon)
Activity: LBA-ECO
LBA Science Component: Nutrient Dynamics
Team ID: ND-04 (Fernandes / Wandelli)
The investigators were Fernandes, Erick C.M.; Wandelli, Elisa Vieira; Ackerman, Ilse Lieve; Duxbury, John; Feldpausch, Ted R.; Ferreira, Frank Correa; Gallardo-Ordinola, Jorge Luis Enrique; Garcia, Silas; Hines, Kristen; Kuczak, Christienne N.; Lehmann, Johannes; Luizao, Flavio de Jesus; Luizao, Regina Celi Costa; Milgroom, Jessica; Queiroz, Juliete Maria Tome de; Riha, Susan J.; Schwendener, Carol Melanie; Silva, Guilherme Castilho da; Silva, Rubenildo Lima da; Cabrera, Lucerina Trujillo and Welch, Steven A. You may contact Feldpausch, Ted R. (trf2@cornell.edu).
LBA Data Set Inventory ID: ND04_Secondary_Forest_Recovery
The area of secondary forest (SF) regenerating from pastures is increasing in the Amazon Basin; however, the return of forest and canopy structure following abandonment is not well understood. We studied the development of leaf area index (LAI), canopy cover, aboveground biomass, stem density, diameter at breast height (DBH), and basal area (BA) by growth-form and diameter class for ten SFs regenerating from abandoned pastures.
Related Data Set:
There are four comma-delimited data files with this data set and one companion file with information regarding the allometric equations relating diameter at breast height (for dbh > 5 cm) to dry weight for biomass calculations.
File #1: ND04_Secondary_Forest_LAI_2000-01.csv
File #2: ND04_Secondary_Forest_DBH.csv
File #3: ND04_Secondary_Forest_Structure_Means.csv
File #4: ND04_Secondary_Forest_Plot_Information.csv
Companion file:
File #5: ND04_Secondary_Forest_Allometric_Equations.txt
Fazenda names/sampling location information:
| Fazenda name code | Fazenda name | Description | |
|---|---|---|---|
| DAS | Embrapa | Amazonia Ocidental Agricultural District of SUFRAMA (DAS) pasture research site, BR-174 Km 53-54 (North of Manaus) | |
| Rodao | Fazenda Rodao | BR-174 Km 46 (North of Manaus) | |
| Dimona | Fazenda Dimona | ZF-3 Km 72 (North of Manaus) | |
File #1: ND04_Secondary_Forest_LAI_2000-01.csv
| Column | Heading | Units/format | Description |
|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | Sample_date | yyyymmdd | Sampling date (yyyymmdd) |
| 2 | Sample_month | mm | Month in which sampling was done: March, June, September, December |
| 3 | Sample_year | yyyy | Year in which sampling was done |
| 4 | Location_ID | Sampling location ID code, consisting of fazenda name code + forest site number within each fazenda (See companion file: ND04_Secondary_Forest_Plot_Information.csv) | |
| 5 | Stand_age | Secondary forest age at the onset of the study (years since pasture abandonment) in ranges: 0 to 2, 2 to 4, 4 to 6, 6 to 8, 12 to 14 | |
| 6 | Plot_ID | Plot identification number: each forest had four plots varying in area between 100 and 400 m2 | |
| 7 | Rep_no | Identification of replicate samples within each plot for each LAI measurement | |
| 8 | Height | cm | Sampling height in centimeters (cm). Measuring LAI at two heights allows computation of the scrub layer by subtraction of LAI at 5 from 150 |
| 9 | Treatment | Fertilizer treatment: - Control: no additions - P: P added at a rate of 50 kg/ha as TSP - P+Ca: P (50 kg/ha)+Ca (2 t/ha) - P+Ca+G: P(50 kg/ha)+Ca (2 metric t/ ha)+Gypsum (CaSO4) (1 metric t/ha) | |
| 10 | LAI_1 | m2 m-2 | Estimated Leaf Area index (LAI) in meter squared of leaf area per meter squared of ground area calculated using the CI-110 Digital Plant Canopy Analyzer [C-110: CID, Inc., Vancouver Washington] |
| 11 | Mean_leaf angle | degrees | Mean leaf angle in degrees |
| 12 | Trans_coef | % | Transmission coefficient; a factor that describes the regional clarity of the atmosphere with respect to instantaneous transmission of direct radiation |
| 13 | Threshold | Threshold set within the CI-110 software used to differentiate between leaf margins and sky | |
| 14 | Canopy_opennes | % | Canopy openness based on the GLA software reported in percent (%) [GLA: Gap Light Analyzer 2.0 software (Frazer et al., 1999)] |
| 15 | LAI_GLA_4 | m2 m-2 | Estimated Leaf Area Index (LAI) in meter squared of leaf area per meter squared of ground area calculated using the GLA software for the 4th ring [GLA: Gap Light Analyzer 2.0 software (Frazer et al., 1999)] |
| 16 | LAI_GLA_5 | m2 m-2 | Estimated Leaf Area Index (LAI) in meter squared of leaf area per meter squared of ground area calculated using the GLA software for the 5th ring [GLA: Gap Light Analyzer 2.0 software (Frazer et al., 1999)] |
| Missing data represented by -9999, data not collected are represented by -4444 | |||
Example data records:
|
Sample_date,Sample_month,Sample_year,Location_ID,Stand_age,Plot_ID,Rep_no,Height,Treatment, LAI_1,Mean_leaf angle,Trans_coef,Threshold,Canopy_openness ,LAI_GLA_4,LAI_GLA_5 20000912,September,2000,DAS-1,0 to 2,9,1,150,P, -9999,0,-4444,-4444,0,0,0 20000912,September,2000,DAS-1,0 to 2,9,2,150,P, 0,0,-4444,-4444,0,0,0 20000912,September,2000,DAS-1,0 to 2,9,3,150,P, 0,0,-4444,-4444,0,0,0 20000912,September,2000,DAS-1,0 to 2,9,4,150,P, 0,0,-4444,-4444,0,0,0 20000912,September,2000,DAS-1,0 to 2,9,5,150,P, 0,0,-4444,-4444,0,0,0 20000912,September,2000,DAS-1,0 to 2,8,1,150,Control, 0,0,-4444,-4444,0,0,0 20000912,September,2000,DAS-1,0 to 2,8,2,150,Control, 0,0,-4444,-4444,0,0,0 20000912,September,2000,DAS-1,0 to 2,8,3,150,Control, 0,0,-4444,-4444,0,0,0 |
File #2: ND04_Secondary_Forest_DBH.csv
| Column | Heading | Units/format | Description |
|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | Location_ID | Sampling location ID code, consisting of fazenda name code + forest site number within each fazenda (See companion file: ND04_Secondary_Forest_Plot_Information.csv) | |
| 2 | Stand_age | Secondary forest age at the onset of the study (years since pasture abandonment) in ranges: 0 to 2, 2 to 4, 4 to 6, 6 to 8, 12 to 14 | |
| 3 | Plot_ID | Plot identification number: there are 4 plots per forest with the exception of DAS-1 which has 12 plots | |
| 4 | Subplot_ID | Subplot identification number: there are 3 subplots per plot | |
| 5 | Subplot_area | m2 | Subplot area in meters squared (m2) |
| 6 | Plant_ID | Plant identification number | |
| 7 | Scientific_name | Scientific name of the plant where identified in the format Genus species or "Not determined" | |
| 8 | Common_name | Local name of plant where identified or "Not determined" | |
| 9 | Growth_form | Plant growth form: tree, shrub or liana | |
| 10 | DBH | mm | Diameter at breast height: measured in millimeters (mm) at 1.3 meters above the surface of the soil |
| 11 | Field_notes | Comments from the field notebooks | |
| Missing data indicated by -9999 | |||
Example data records:
|
Location_ID,Stand_age,Plot_ID,Subplot_ID,Subplot_area,Plant_ID,Scientific_name,Common_name,Growth_form,DBH
,Field_notes DAS-1,0 to 2,1,-9999,-9999,-9999,Not determined,Not determined,-9999,-9999,No stems greater than or equal to 1 cm DBH DAS-1,0 to 2,2,-9999,-9999,-9999,Not determined,Not determined,-9999,-9999,No stems greater than or equal to 1 cm DBH DAS-1,0 to 2,3,-9999,-9999,-9999,Not determined,Not determined,-9999,-9999,No stems greater than or equal to 1 cm DBH DAS-1,0 to 2,4,-9999,-9999,-9999,Not determined,Not determined,-9999,-9999,No stems greater than or equal to 1 cm DBH DAS-1,0 to 2,5,-9999,-9999,-9999,Not determined,Not determined,-9999,-9999,No stems greater than or equal to 1 cm DBH DAS-1,0 to 2,6,-9999,-9999,-9999,Not determined,Not determined,-9999,-9999,No stems greater than or equal to 1 cm DBH DAS-1,0 to 2,7,-9999,-9999,-9999,Not determined,Not determined,-9999,-9999,No stems greater than or equal to 1 cm DBH |
File #3: ND04_Secondary_Forest_Structure_Means.csv
| Column | Heading | Units/format | Description |
|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | Location_ID | Sampling location ID code, consisting of fazenda name code + forest site number within each fazrnda (See companion file: ND04_Secondary_Forest_Plot_Information.csv) | |
| 2 | Stand_age | Secondary forest age at the onset of the study (years since pasture abandonment) in ranges: 0 to 2, 2 to 4, 4 to 6, 6 to 8, 12 to 14 | |
| 3 | Vegetation_group | Type of vegetation: tree, shrub, liana, or total which indicates that all 3 categories are represented | |
| 4 | Biomass_TABG | mg ha-1 | Total aboveground biomass calculated using allometric equations for the trees, lianas, and shrubs reported as mg ha-1 (See below for contents of companion file (File #5): ND04_Secondary_Forest_Allometric_Equations.txt). See accompanying documentation for equations. |
| 5 | DBH_mean | cm | Mean diameter at breast height in centimeters (cm) for each forest. Diameter was measured at 1.3 meters above the ground or above prop roots where they occurred |
| 6 | Stem_density_mean | stems ha-1 | Mean number of stems per hectare (stems ha-1) for each forest |
| 7 | Basal_area_mean | m2 ha-1 | Mean basal area calculated from measured dbh and scaled from the sum of all area inventoried to m2 per hectare for each forest, reported as m2 ha-1 |
| Missing data are represented by -9999 | |||
Example data records:
|
Location_ID,Stand_age,Vegetation_group,Biomass_TABG,DBH_mean,Stem_density_mean,Basal_area_mean DAS-1,0 to 2 ,tree,0,0,0,0 DAS-1,0 to 2 ,shrub,0,0,0,0 DAS-1,0 to 2 ,liana,0,0,0,0 DAS-1,0 to 2 ,total,0,-9999,0,0 Rodao-1,0 to 2 ,tree,0,0,0,0 Rodao-1,0 to 2 ,shrub,0,0,0,0 Rodao-1,0 to 2 ,liana,0,0,0,0 Rodao-1,0 to 2 ,total,0,-9999,0,0 Rodao-4,2 to 4,tree,0.08,0.86,75,0 Rodao-4,2 to 4,shrub,0.18,0.73,300,0.1 Rodao-4,2 to 4,liana,0,0,0,0 Rodao-4,2 to 4,total,0.25,-9999,375,0.1 DAS-2,4 to 6,tree,22.27,3.05,6375,7 DAS-2,4 to 6,shrub,1.1,1.81,1875,0.5 |
File #4: ND04_Secondary_Forest_Plot_Information.csv
| Column | Heading | Units/format | Description |
|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | State | Study location state: Amazonia | |
| 2 | Region | Study location region: Manaus | |
| 3 | Km_marker | Study location kilometer marker along the highway BR-174 running north from Manaus to Venezuela, or ZF-3, a feeder road to BF-174 | |
| 4 | Fazenda_name | Fazenda name (See Fazenda Name / Description above) | |
| 5 | Location_ID | Sampling location ID code, consisting of fazenda name code + forest site number within the fazenda | |
| 6 | Stand_age | Secondary forest age at onset of study, i.e. years after pasture abandonment: 0 to 2, 2 to 4, 4 to 6, 6 to 8, 12 to 14 | |
| 7 | N_Plots | Number of plots in forest | |
| 8 | Plot_dimensions | m | Plot dimensions as width of plot in meters X depth of plot in meters (m) |
| 9 | N_subplots | Number of sub-plots in the plot | |
| 10 | Subplot_dimensions | m | Sub-plot dimensions as: width of sub-plot in meters X depth of sub-plot in meters (m) |
| 11 | Plot_area | m^2 | Total area sampled per plot in meters squared (m^2) |
| 12 | Forest_area | m^2 | Total area sampled per forest in meters squared (m^2) |
Example data records:
|
State,Region,Km_marker,Fazenda_name,Location_ID,Stand_age,N_plots,Plot_dimensions,N_subplots,Subplot_dimensions, Plot_area,Forest_area Amazonas,Manaus,km 54,Embrapa DAS Experiment,DAS-1,0 to 2,12,10x10,1,10x10, 100,1200 Amazonas,Manaus,km 54,Embrapa DAS Experiment,DAS-2,4 to 6,4,15x15,3,4x5, 60,240 Amazonas,Manaus,km 54,Embrapa DAS Experiment,DAS-3,12 to 14,4,20x20,3,5x7, 105,420 Amazonas,Manaus,km 72,Fazenda Dimona - ZF3 ,Dimona-1,6 to 8,4,15x15,3,4x5, 60,240 Amazonas,Manaus,km 72,Fazenda Dimona - ZF3 ,Dimona-2,12 to 14,4,20x20,3,5x7, 105,420 Amazonas,Manaus,km 72,Fazenda Dimona - ZF3 ,Dimona-3,6 to 8,4,15x15,3,4x5, 60,240 Amazonas,Manaus,km 46,Fazenda Rodao,Rodao-1,0 to 2,4,15x15,1,15x15, 225,900 Amazonas,Manaus,km 46,Fazenda Rodao,Rodao-2,6 to 8,4,15x15,3,4x5, 60,240 Amazonas,Manaus,km 46,Fazenda Rodao,Rodao-3,4 to 6,4,15x15,3,4x5, 60,240 Amazonas,Manaus,km 46,Fazenda Rodao,Rodao-4,2 to 4,4,10x10,1,10x10, 100,400 |
File #5: ND04_Secondary_Forest_Allometric_Equations.txt
Allometric equations relating diameter at breast height (for dbh > 5 cm) to dry weight of dominant secondary forest species in central Amazonia, Brasil. Based on Nelson et al. 1999.
| Family | Scientific_name | Allometric equation | R2 |
|---|---|---|---|
| Cecropiaceae | Cecropia sp. | ln (DW)= -2.5118 +2.4257*ln (dbh) | 0.98 |
| Celastraceae | Goupia glabra | ln (DW)= -1.7972 +2.4206*ln (dbh) | 0.99 |
| Clusiaceae | Vismia japurensis | ln (DW)= -1.7829 +2.3651*ln (dbh) | 0.99 |
| Clusiaceae | Vismia cayennensis | ln (DW)= -2.3706 +2.5392*ln (dbh) | 0.99 |
| Flacourtiaceae | Laetia procera | ln (DW)= -2.224 +2.5105*ln (dbh) | 0.99 |
| Melastomateceae | Bellucia sp. | ln (DW)= -1.8158 +2.370*ln (dbh) | 0.99 |
| Mixed species | ln (DW)= -1.9968 +2.4128*ln (dbh) | 0.98 | |
| Allometric equation relating basal area (in cm2) to dry weight for lianas. Based on Putz 1983. Log (DW)= 0.12+ 0.91*log(BA) R2= 0.82 | |||
| Citations: | |||
| Nelson, B.W., R. Mesquita, J.L.G. Pereira, S.G.A. d. Souza, G.T. Batista and L.B. Couto. 1999. Allometric regressions for improved estimate of secondary forest biomass in the central Amazon. Forest Ecology and Management 117: 149-167. | |||
| Putz, F.E. 1983. Liana biomass and leaf area of a 'terre firme' forest in the Rio Negro Basin, Venezuela. Biotropica 15: 185-189. | |||
Site boundaries: (All latitude and longitude given in decimal degrees)
| Site (Region) | Westernmost Longitude | Easternmost Longitude | Northernmost Latitude | Southernmost Latitude | Geodetic Datum |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Amazonas (Manaus) - EMBRAPA CPAA pasture research station (Amazonas (Manaus)) | -60.03 | -60.03 | -2.518 | -2.518 | World Geodetic System, 1984 (WGS-84) |
| Amazonas (Manaus) - Fazenda Dimona (Amazonas (Manaus)) | -59 | -59 | -2 | -2 | World Geodetic System, 1984 (WGS-84) |
| Amazonas (Manaus) - Fazenda Rodao (Amazonas (Manaus)) | -60.02365 | -60.02365 | -2.57156 | -2.57156 | World Geodetic System, 1984 (WGS-84) |
Time period:
Platform/Sensor/Parameters measured include:
Using individual tree and shrub DBH measurements we calculated dry biomass by life-form and diameter class using two sets of allometric equations developed in the region (for stems greater than 5 cm diameter, from Nelson et al. (1999); for smaller stems, from Mesquita unpublished data). We calculated mean basal area for all stems by calculating basal area for the individual based on DBH and summing the values per plot. Using allometric equations developed in Amazonian terra firme sites, we calculated basal area of individual vines and converted basal area to dry biomass (Putz, 1983).
These data allow the calculation of rate the recovery of secondary forests as well as the structure of the recovering forest in terms of stem size and density.
Since we only measured DBH for stems greater than or equal to 1 cm diameter, our estimates underestimate total aboveground biomass and stem density.
Study sites:
The study sites were located in the state of Amazonas, Brazil along the road BR-174
north of the city of Manaus. The terrain is undulating with an elevation of 50-150 m.a.s.l. The plateau soil is classified as dystrophic, isohyperthermic, clayey kaolinitic
Hapludoxes with approximately 80 to 95% clay. Regional climate is tropical humid
and the mean temperature is 26.7 degrees C. Mean annual rainfall in Manaus is 2.2
meters with March and April the wettest months.
Ten secondary forests were selected within three fazendas (cattle ranches) now in various stages of grazing, pasture abandonment or pasture reclamation: Fazenda Rodao (km 46), Embrapa-District of SUFRAMA (DAS) pasture research site (km 53), and Fazenda Dimona (km 72). Defining “abandoned” was problematic since there may have been an infrequent rotation of temporary contract grazing of a few cattle. The abandonment date was then indefinite since cattle may periodically graze the area until all palatable forage is replaced by woody successional vegetation. To address this issue, the data are provided as age classes, rather than purport to define a fixed abandonment date (Feldpausch et al., 2005). The regenerating forests within each fazenda represented individual pastures that were abandoned from 0–2 to 12–14 yr. Within the selected forest (time since pasture abandonment 0-14 years), located on plateau Oxisols, we established 4 plots of 100 m2 to 400 m2 area. Within each plot 3 subplots ranging in size from 35 to 100 m2 were established. A total of 0.56 ha of area was included in this study across the 10 forests.
LAI measurements:
Leaf area index was measured in all sub-plots beginning in September 2000 and repeated
every three months for a year. The LAI measurements were taken with a portable, electronic handheld hemispheric (fish-eye)
lens (CI-110: CID, Inc., Vancouver Washington) with the plane of the lens set parallel
to the ground. LAI was measured at 5 and 150 cm above the ground, which resulted in
12 LAI images per forest per height (total of 240 images). The two heights allow
for the distinction of understory (leaf area below 150 cm height)and overstory leaf area.
All photographs were taken using the incident light characteristic of morning and
evening twilight hours.
Leaf area index was calculated from the digital photos using the CI-110 software
(version 3.0.1.1) on a high-resolution LCD monitor. We reduced the field of view
from 180 degrees to 150 degrees to reduce the misclassification of stems as leaves.
After setting an image specific threshold to differentiate between leaf margins
and sky, the software uses gap fraction analysis to calculate LAI for each image
(Norman and Campbell 1989).
Canopy cover, a measure of the percentage of leaf cover obscuring the open sky
as viewed from the ground, was calculated from the same digital photos using the
Gap Light Analyzer 2.0 software (Frazer et al. 1999). Additional LAI estimates were
made from the GLA software based on reductions in the hemispheric view from GLA ring 4 and ring 5.
Canopy cover was calculated using the canopy gap diffuse data, the fraction of
pixels in each sky region that are open (white) on the fisheye photograph, weighted
by hemispherical area.
Forest structure and biomass measurements:
Diameters of all stems (trees, shrubs and vines) with diameters at breast height
(1.3 m above ground for all live trees with diameters greater than or equal to 1
cm or above prop roots where they occurred) were measured in each sub-plot in late December 2000/early January
2001. Using individual tree and shrub DBH measurements we calculated dry biomass
by life-form and diameter class using two sets of allometric equations developed
in the region (for stems greater than 5 cm diameter, from Nelson et al. (1999); for
smaller stems, from Mesquita unpublished data). We calculated mean basal area for
all stems by calculating basal area for the individual based on DBH and summing
the values per plot. Using allometric equations developed in Amazonian terra firme
sites, we calculated basal area of individual vines and converted basal area to dry
biomass (Putz, 1983).
This data is available through the Oak Ridge National Laboratory (ORNL) Distributed Active Archive Center (DAAC).
Contact for Data Center Access Information:
E-mail: uso@daac.ornl.gov
Telephone: +1 (865) 241-3952
Feldpausch, Ted R., Susan J. Riha, Erick C. M. Fernandes, Elisa V. Wandelli, 2005: Development of Forest Structure and Leaf Area in Secondary Forests Regenerating on Abandoned Pastures in Central Amazônia. Earth Interact., 9(6):1-22. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1175/EI140.1
Frazer, G.W., C.D. Canham and K.P. Lertzman. 1999. Gap Light Analyzer (GLA): Imaging software to extract canopy structure and gap light transmission indices from true-color fisheye photographs: User's manual and program documentation (version 2.0). Simon Fraser University, Burnaby, BC, Canada and the Institute of Ecosystem Studies, Millbrook, NY 36 pp.
Nelson, B.W., R. Mesquita, J.L.G. Pereira, S.G.A. d. Souza, G.T. Batista and L.B. Couto. 1999. Allometric regressions for improved estimate of secondary forest biomass in the central Amazon. Forest Ecology and Management 117: 149-167.
Norman, J.M. and G.S.Campbell. 1989. Canopy structure. Pages 301-325 in Plant Physiological Ecology: Field Methods and Instrumentation. J.E.R.W. Pearcy, H.A. Mooney and P.W. Rundel editors.
Putz, F.E. 1983. Liana biomass and leaf area of a 'terre firme' forest in the Rio Negro Basin, Venezuela. Biotropica 15: 185-189.
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